Abstract
Background: The aim of this study was to analyze the prevalence, age and gender differences, and psychological outcomes (anxiety, depression and self-esteem) related to being a victim of different forms of online gendered violence (OGV), namely: digital sexual harassment; physical appearance-based violence; gender role-based violence; and anti- feminism violence. Method: 2,471 respondents (71.1 % women) aged 18–79 years (M = 27.28, SD = 10.08) completed self-report measures. Results: The results showed that 82.6 % of respondents had experienced at least one form of OGV in the last 12 months. The most frequent form of OGV was digital sexual harassment (66.7%), followed by physical appearance-based violence (60.7%), anti-feminism violence (60.7%) and gender role-based violence (25.4%). OGV was significantly higher among women (88%) than men (68.6%), as well as among younger adults. Finally, the results showed that these forms of violence were associated with worse psychological outcomes, especially for younger respondents and for women. Conclusions: OGV is a common phenomenon that may be related to lower psychological well-being. This study provides relevant information that can shape the design of prevention and intervention programs for this form of digital violence.
References
Álvarez, P. (2018, March 8).Amovement that’s being driven by young women. El País. https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/03/08/inenglish/1520500265_433354.html
Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
Berne, S., Frisén, A., & Kling, J. (2014). Appearance-related cyberbullying: A qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image, 11(4), 527–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.08.006
Brown, C. S., & Stone, E. A. (2016). Gender stereotypes and discrimination: How sexism impacts development. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 50, 105–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2015.11.001
Buchanan, N., & Mahoney, A. (2022). Development of a scale measuring online sexual harassment: Examining gender differences and the emotional impact of sexual harassment victimization online. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 27(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12197
Calogero, R. M., Tylka, T. L., Donnelly, L. C., McGetrick, A., & Leger, A. M. (2017). Trappings of femininity: A test of the “beauty as currency” hypothesis in shaping college women’s gender activism. Body Image, 21, 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.02.008
Calvete, E., Orue, I., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2016). Cyberbullying victimization and depression in adolescents: The mediating role of body image and cognitive schemas in a one-year prospective study. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 22, 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10610-015-9292-8
Champion, A. R., Oswald, F., Khera, D., & Pedersen, C. L. (2022). Examining the gendered impacts of technology-facilitated sexual violence: A mixed methods approach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(3), 1607–1624. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02226-y
Citron, D. K. (2014). Hate crimes in cyberspace. Harvard University Press.
Cripps, J., & Stermac, L. (2018). Cyber-sexual violence and negative emotional states among women in a Canadian university. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 12(1), 171–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1467891
Demir, Y., & Ayhan, B. (2022). Being a female sports journalist on Twitter: Online harassment, sexualization, and hegemony. International Journal of Sport Communication, 1, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2022-0044
Derogatis, L. R. (2001). Brief symptom inventory (BSI): Administration, scoring and procedures manual. NCS Pearson Inc.
Donoso-Vázquez, T., Hurtado, M. J. R., & Baños, R. V. (2017). Las ciberagresiones en función del género [Cyberaggressions by gender]. Revista de Investigación Educativa, 35(1), 197–214.
Drechsler, J. (2015). Multiple imputation of multilevel missing data-rigor versus simplicity. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 4(1), 69–95. http://doi.org/10.3102/1076998614563393
Duncan, N., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Furman, W. (2019). Sexual harassment and appearance-based peer victimization: Unique associations with emotional adjustment by gender and age. Journal of Adolescence, 75, 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.06.016
Felmlee, D., Inara Rodis, P. & Zhang, A. (2020). Sexist slurs: Reinforcing feminine stereotypes online. Sex Roles, 83, 16–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-019-01095-z
Finkelhor, D., & Asdigian, N. L. (1996). Risk factors for youth victimization: Beyond a lifestyles/routine activities theory approach. Violence and Victims, 11(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.11.1.3
Foster, M. D., Tassone, A., & Matheson, K. (2021). Tweeting about sexism motivates further activism: A social identity perspective. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60(3), 741–764. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12431
Galdi, S., & Guizzo, F. (2021). Media-induced sexual harassment: The routes from sexually objectifying media to sexual harassment. Sex Roles, 84(11- 12), 645–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01196-0
Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Borrajo, E., & Calvete, E. (2015). Prevalence and association of sexting and online sexual victimization among Spanish adults. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12, 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9
Gámez-Guadix, M., & Íncera, D. (2021). Homophobia is online: Sexual victimization and risks on the internet and mental health among bisexual, homosexual, pansexual, asexual, and queer adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 119, 106728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106728
Gámez-Guadix, M., Sorrel, M.A. & Martínez-Bacaicoa, J. (2022). Technology- facilitated sexual violence perpetration and victimization among adolescents: A network analysis. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 20, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-022-00775-y
Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., Förster, J., Maass, A., & Suitner, C. (2012). Seeing women as objects: The sexual body part recognition bias. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 743–753. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1890.
Granic, I., Morita, H., & Scholten, H. (2020). Beyond screen time: Identity development in the digital age. Psychological Inquiry, 31(3), 195–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2020.1820214
Gundersen, A.B & Kunst, J.R. (2019). Feminist ≠ feminine? Feminist women are visually masculinized whereas feminist men are feminized. Sex Roles, 80, 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0931-7
Haslam, S. A., Haslam, C., Cruwys, T., Jetten, J., Bentley, S. V., Fong, P., & Steffens, N. K. (2022). Social identity makes group-based social connection possible: Implications for loneliness and mental health. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 161–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.013
Heise, L., Greene, M. E., Opper, N., Stavropoulou, M., Harper, C., Nascimento, M., & Zewdie, D. (2019). Gender inequality and restrictive gender norms: Framing the challenges to health. The Lancet, 393(10189), 2440–2454. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30652-X
Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2015). Embodied harms: Gender, shame, and technology-facilitated sexual violence. Violence Against Women, 21(6), 758–779. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215576581
Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2018). Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(2), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650189
Kavanagh, E., & Brown, L. (2020). Towards a research agenda for examining online gender-based violence against women academics. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 44(10), 1379–1387. https://doi.org/10.1080/030987 7X.2019.1688267
Kavanagh, E., Litchfield, C., & Osborne, J. (2019). Sporting women and social media: Sexualization, misogyny, and gender-based violence in online spaces. International Journal of Sport Communication, 12(4), 552–572. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2019-0079
Kimmel M. (2016). The gendered society (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., Clancy, E., Mellor, D. J., & Toumbourou, J.W.
(2019). Sexting and psychological distress: The role of unwanted and coerced sexts. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(4), 237-242. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0291
Lacalle, C., Jiménez, V. M., & Hernández, D. E. (2023). El antifeminismo de la ultraderecha española en Twitter en torno al 8M [The anti-feminism of the Spanish ultra-right on Twitter around 8M]. Revista Prisma Social, 40, 358–376.
Leaper C. (2015). Gender and social-cognitive development. In Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Vol 2: Cognitive Processes (7th ed.). Wiley.
Lewis, R., Rowe, M., & Wiper, C. (2017). Online abuse of feminists as an emerging form of violence against women and girls. British Journal of Criminology, 57(6), 1462–1481. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw073
Martín-Albo, J., Núñez, J. L., Navarro, J. G., & Grijalvo, F. (2007). The Rosenberg self-esteem scale: Translation and validation in university students. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 10, 458–467. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600006727
Martínez-Bacaicoa, J., Alonso-Fernández, M., Wachs, S., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2023). Prevalence and motivations for technology-facilitated gender- and sexuality-based violence among adults: A mixed-methods study. Sex roles, 89(11), 670-684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-023-01412-7
Martínez-Bacaicoa, J., Sorrel., M.A., Gámez-Guadix, M. (2024). Development and Validation of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Perpetration and Victimization Scales Among Adults. Assessment, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911241229575
McCarthy, B. (2022). ‘Who unlocked the kitchen?’: Online misogyny, YouTube comments and women’s professional street skateboarding. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 57(3), 362–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902211021509
McCarthy, J. D., & Hoge, D. R. (1982). Analysis of age effects in longitudinal studies of adolescent self-esteem. Developmental Psychology, 18(3), 372– 379. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.18.3.372
McLaughlin, K., & Aikman, S. N. (2020). That is what a feminist looks like: Identification and exploration of the factors underlying the concept of feminism and predicting the endorsement of traditional gender roles. Gender Issues, 37(2), 91–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-019-09240-4
Mikorski, R., & Szymanski, D. M. (2017). Masculine norms, peer group, pornography, Facebook, and men’s sexual objectification of women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 18(4), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/ men0000058
Moya, M. C., & Moya-Garófano, A. (2021). Evolution of gender stereotypes in Spain: From 1985 to 2018. Psicothema, 33(1), 53–59. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2020.328
Nadim, M., & Fladmoe, A. (2021). Silencing women? Gender and online harassment. Social Science Computer Review, 39(2), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319865518
Pereda, N., Forns, M., & Peró, M. (2007). Dimensional structure of the Brief Symptom Inventory with Spanish college students. Psicothema, 19(4), 634–639.
Phipps, C. (2022). “You belong in the kitchen”: Social media, virtual manhood acts, and women strength sport athletes’ experiences of gender-based violence online. Feminist Media Studies, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14 680777.2022.2158898
Powell, A., Flynn, A., & Hindes, S. (2022). Technology-facilitated abuse: National survey of Australian adults’ experiences (Research report, 12/2022). ANROWS. https://anrows.intersearch.com.au/anrowsjspui/handle/1/22477
Powell, A., & Henry, N. (2019). Technology-facilitated sexual violence victimization: Results from an online survey of Australian adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(17), 3637–3665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516672055
Powell, A., Scott, A. J., & Henry, N. (2020). Digital harassment and abuse: Experiences of sexuality and gender minority adults. European Journal of Criminology, 17(2), 199–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370818788006
Rodelli, M., Koutra, K., Thorvaldsdottir, K. B., Bilgin, H., Ratsika, N., Testoni, I., & Saint Arnault, D. M. (2022). Conceptual development and content validation of a multicultural instrument to assess the normalization of gender-based violence against women. Sexuality & Culture, 26(1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-021-09877-y
Rosenberg, M (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Rudman, L. A., Mescher, K., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2013). Reactions to gender egalitarian men: Perceived feminization due to stigma-by- association. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16(5), 572–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212461160
Ruvalcaba, Y., & Eaton, A. A. (2020). Nonconsensual pornography among
U.S. adults: A sexual scripts framework on victimization, perpetration, and health correlates for women and men. Psychology of Violence, 10(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000233
Salerno-Ferraro, A. C., Erentzen, C., & Schuller, R. A. (2022). Young women’s experiences with technology-facilitated sexual violence from male strangers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(19–20), NP17860–NP17885. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211030018
Snaychuk, L. A., & O’Neill, M. L. (2020). Technology-facilitated sexual violence: Prevalence, risk, and resiliency in undergraduate students. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 29(8), 984-999. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1710636
Wirtz, A. L., Poteat, T. C., Malik, M., & Glass, N. (2020). Gender-based violence against transgender people in the United States: A call for research and programming. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(2), 227– 241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018757749
Zucker, A. N. (2004). Disavowing social identities: What it means when women say, “I’m not a feminist, but ….” Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(4), 423–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471- 6402.2004.00159.x