Keywords
Invented Spelling
Phonological Awareness
Words Reading
Preschool Alfabetización temprana
Escritura Inventada
Conciencia fonológica
Lectura
preescolar
How to Cite
Abstract
Reading development in literate contexts depends largely on the early strengthening of specific language skills that act as precursors to written language. Among these, phonological awareness and invented writing have demonstrated a differential impact on reading acquisition, particularly in transparent languages such as Spanish. This study aimed to compare the effects of three intervention methods in five-year-old Spanish-speaking children: computer-mediated phonological awareness, small-group invented writing, and a combined intervention. A quasi-experimental design was used with pre- and posttest measurements, in addition to a six-month follow-up assessment. The interventions were applied for eight weeks and assessed through pre- and posttest tests, in addition to a six-month follow-up measurement. Although no significant differences were observed between groups, all participants improved their reading skills, including reading new words. However, persistent difficulties in reading pseudowords suggest incomplete consolidation of the phonological pathway. These findings provide empirical evidence on the effectiveness and sustainability of early literacy interventions.
References
Aguilar Villagrán, M., Navarro Guzmán, J. I., Menacho Jiménez, I., Alcale Cuevas, C., Marchena Consejero, E., y Olivier, P. R. (2010). Velocidad de nombrar y conciencia fonológica en el aprendizaje inicial de la lectura. Psicothema, 22(3), 436-442.
Albuquerque, A., y Martins, M. A. (2021). Invented spelling activities in kindergarten: The role of instructional scaffolding and collaborative learning. International Journal of Early Years Education, 29(1), 96-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2020.1760085
Albuquerque, A., y Martins, M. A. (2022). Invented spelling as a tool to develop early literacy: The predictive effect on reading and spelling acquisition in Portuguese. Journal of Writing Research, 14(1), 113-131. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2022.14.01.04
Atkinson, S. J., y Martin, C. R. (2022). Early detection of risk of reading difficulties using a working memory assessment battery. British Educational Research Journal, 48(6), 1183-1197. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3821
Balbi, A., Von Hagen, A., Cuadro, A., y Ruiz, C. (2018). Revisión sistemática sobre intervenciones en alfabetización temprana: implicancias para intervenir en español. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 50(1), 31-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.14349/rlp.2018.v50.n1.4
Bigozzi, L., Vettori, G., e Incognito, O. (2023). The role of preschoolers ‘home literacy environment and emergent literacy skills on later reading and writing skills in primary school: A mediational model. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1113822. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1113822
Cardoso-Martins, C., Pollo, T., dos Santos, A. H. P., y Mervis, C. B. (2023). Early Invented Spelling Predicts Later Word-Reading Ability beyond Early Phoneme Awareness and Word-Reading Ability: Evidence from Brazilian Portuguese. En Y. Ye, T. Inoue, U. Maurer, y C. McBride (Eds.), Routledge International Handbook of Visual-motor skills, Handwriting, and Spelling (pp. 293-306). Routledge.
Carrillo, M. (1994). Development of phonological awareness and reading acquisition: A study in Spanish language. Reading and Writing, 6(3), 279-298. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01027086
Casillas, Á., y Goikoetxea, E. (2007). Sílaba, principio rima y fonema como predictores de la lectura y la escritura tempranas. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 30(2), 245 259. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037007780937332
Cuetos, F., Arribas, D., Suárez-Coalla, P., y Martínez-García, G. (2020) PROLEXIA. Diagnóstico y Detección Temprana de la Dislexia. TEA.
Defior, S., Serrano, F., y Marín-Cano, M. J. (2008). El Poder predictivo de las habilidades de conciencia fonológica en la lectura y escritura en castellano. En E. Díez-Itza (Ed.), Estudios de desarrollo del lenguaje y educación (pp. 339-347). Instituto Ciencias de la Educación Universidad de Oviedo.
Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356
García, M., González i Calderon, M., y García-Campomanes, B. (2016) Glifing: Cómo detectar y vencer las dificultades de la lectura. Horsori.
González-Seijas, R. M., Cuetos Vega, F., López Larrosa, S., y Vilar Fernández, J. (2017). Efectos del entrenamiento en conciencia fonológica y velocidad de denominación sobre la lectura. Un estudio longitudinal. Estudios sobre Educación, 32, 155-177. https://doi.org/10.15581/004.32.155-177
González-Valenzuela, M. J., Díaz-Giráldez, F., y López-Montiel, M. D. (2016). Cognitive Predictors of Word and Pseudoword Reading in Spanish First-Grade Children. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, art. 774. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00774
González-Valenzuela, M.-J., López-Montiel, D., Chebaani, F., Cobos-Cali, M., Piedra-Martínez, E., y Martín-Ruiz, I. (2023). Predictors of Word and Pseudoword Reading in Languages with Different Orthographic Consistency. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 52(1), 307-330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-022-09893-5
Gutiérrez-Fresneda, R., y Díez-Mediavilla, A. (2017). Efectos de un programa de conciencia fonológica en el aprendizaje de la lectura y la escritura. Revista Española de Orientación y Psicopedagogía, 28(2), 30-45.
Gutiérrez, R. (2018). Habilidades favorecedoras del aprendizaje de la lectura en alumnos de 5 y 6 años. Revista Signos, 51(96), 45-60. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-09342018000100045
Hand, E. D., Lonigan, C. J., y Puranik, C. S. (2024). Prediction of kindergarten and first-grade reading skills: Unique contributions of preschool writing and early-literacy skills. Reading and Writing, 37(1), 25-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10330-1
Hofslundsengen, H., Hagtvet, B. E., y Gustafsson, J.-E. (2016). Immediate and delayed effects of invented writing intervention in preschool. Reading and Writing, 29(7), 1473-1495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9646-8
Levin, I., y Aram, D. (2013). Promoting early literacy via practicing invented spelling: a comparison of different mediation routines. Reading Research. Quarterly, 48(3), 221–236. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.48
Luque, J. L., Giménez, A., Bordoy, S., y Sánchez, A. (2016). De la teoría fonológica a la identificación temprana de las dificultades específicas de aprendizaje de la lectura. Revista de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología, 36(3), 142-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rlfa.2015.10.001
Majorano, M., Bastianello, T., Florit, E., Lavelli, M., Bertelli, B., y Ferrari, R. (2023). An Intervention Program Based on the Syllabic Method for Enhancing Early Literacy in Preschool Children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 37(4), 550-563. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2022.2147258
Martínez, N., y Goikoetxea, E. (2020). Predictors of reading and spelling words change as a function of syllabic structure in Spanish. Psicología Educativa, 26(1), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.5093/psed2019a20
Martins, M. A., Albuquerque, A., Salvador, L., y Silva, C. (2013). The impact of invented spelling on early spelling and reading. Journal of Writing Research, 5(2), 215-237. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2013.05.02.3
Martins, M. A., Salvador, L., Albuquerque, A., y Fernández, M. M. (2017). “Otro niño lo escribió así”. Ayuda educativa y resultados de actividades de escritura. Revista de Educación, 377, 161-186. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2017-377-357
Martins, M. A., y Silva, C. (2006). The impact of invented spelling on phonemic awareness. Learning and Instruction, 16(1), 41-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.12.005
McNeill, B. C., Gillon, G., y Gath, M. (2023). The Relationship Between Early Spelling and Decoding. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(3), 981-995. https://doi.org/23814764000300140072
McWeeny, S., Choi, S., Choe, J., LaTourrette, A., Roberts, M. Y., y Norton, E. S. (2022). Rapid automatized naming (ran) as a kindergarten predictor of future reading in English: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(4), 1187-1211. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.467
Míguez‐Álvarez, C., Cuevas‐Alonso, M., y Saavedra, Á. (2022). Relationships between phonological awareness and reading in Spanish: A meta‐analysis. Language Learning. A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 72(1), 113-157. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12471
Møller, H. L., Mortensen, J. O., y Elbro, C. (2022). Effects of integrated spelling in phonics instruction for at-risk children in kindergarten. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 38(1), 67-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2021.1907638
National Institute for Literacy. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. U.S. Department of Education.
Noguchi, K., Gel, Y. R., Brunner, E., y Konietschke, F. (2012). nparLD: An R Software Package for the Nonparametric Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Factorial Experiments. Journal of Statistical Software, 50(12), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v050.i12
Ouellette, G., Sénéchal, M., y Haley, A. (2013). Guiding Children’s Invented Spellings: A Gateway into Literacy Learning. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81(2), 261-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2012.699903
Ouellette, G., y Sénèchal, M. (2008). Pathways to literacy: A study of invented spelling and its role in learning to read. Child Development, 79, 899–913.
Ouellette, G., y Sénéchal, M. (2017). Invented spelling in kindergarten as a predictor of reading and spelling in Grade 1: A new pathway to literacy, or just the same road, less known? Developmental Psychology, 53(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000179
Pérez-Pereira, M., Martínez-López, Z., y Maneiro, L. (2020). Longitudinal relationships between reading abilities, phonological awareness, language abilities and executive functions: comparison of low risk preterm and full-term children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, art. 468. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00468
Pinto, G., Bigozzi, L., Tarchi, C., y Camilloni, M. (2018). Improving Conceptual Knowledge of the Italian Writing System in Kindergarten: A Cluster Randomized Trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, art. 1396. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01396
Pinto, G., Bigozzi, L., Vezzani, C., y Tarchi, C. (2017). Emergent literacy and reading acquisition: A longitudinal study from kindergarten to primary school. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 32(4), 571-587. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-016-0314-9
Pollo, T. C., Treiman, R., y Kessler, B. (2007). Three perspectives on spelling development. En E. L. Grigorenko, y A. J. Naples (Eds.), Single-Word Reading: Behavioral and Biological Perspectives (pp.175-189). Erlbaum.
Porta, M. E., Ramírez, G., y Dickinson, D. (2021). Effects of a Kindergarten phonological awareness intervention on grade one reading achievement among Spanish-speaking children from low-income families. Revista Signos. Estudios de Lingüística, 54(106), 409-437. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-09342021000200409
Pulido, L., y Morin, M.-F. (2018). Invented spelling: What is the best way to improve literacy skills in kindergarten? Educational Psychology, 38(8), 980-996. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2017.1414155
Puranik, C. S., y Lonigan, C. J. (2012). Name-writing proficiency, not length of name, is associated with preschool children’s emergent literacy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(2), 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.09.003
R Core Team (2019) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/
Read, C. (1971). Pre-school children's knowledge of English phonology. Harvard Educational Review, 41(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.41.1.91367v0h80051573
Rieben, L, Ntamakiliro, L., Gonthier, B., y Fayol, M. (2005). Effects of Various Early Writing Practices on Reading and Spelling. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 145-166. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_3
Schrodt, K., FitzPatrick, E., Lee, S., McKeown, D., McColloch, A., y Evert, K. (2024). The Effects of Invented Spelling Instruction on Literacy Achievement and Writing Motivation. Education Sciences, 14(9), 1020. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091020
Sénéchal, M., Ouellette, G., y Nguyen, L. (2023). Invented spelling. An integrative review of descriptive, correlational, and causal evidence. En S. Q. Cabell, S. B. Neuman, y N. P. Terry (Eds.), Handbook on the Science of Early Literacy (pp. 95–106). The Guilford Press.
Sénéchal, M., Ouellette, G., Pagan, S., y Lever, R. (2012). The role of invented spelling on learning to read in low-phoneme awareness kindergartners: A randomized-control-trial study. Reading and Writing, 25(4), 917-934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9310-2
Silva, C., y Martins, M. A. (2003). Relations between children’s invented spelling and the development of phonological awareness. Educational Psychology, 23(1), 3-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410303218
Suárez-Coalla, P., García-de-Castro, M., y Cuetos, F. (2013). Variables predictoras de la lectura y la escritura en castellano. Journal for the Study of Education and Development, 36(1), 77-89. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037013804826537
Suro, J., y Leal, F. (2013) PreLec. Prueba de precursores de lectura. GEU.
Tangel, D. M., y Blachman, B. A. (1992). Effect of Phoneme Awareness Instruction on Kindergarten Children’s Invented Spelling. Journal of Reading Behavior, 24(2), 233-261.
Tolchinsky, L., Levin, I., Aram, D., y McBride-Chang, C. (2012). Building literacy in alphabetic, abjad and morphosyllabic systems. Reading and Writing, 25(7), 1573-1598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9334-7
Treiman, R., Hulslander, J., Olson, R. K., Willcutt, E. G., Byrne, B., y Kessler, B. (2019). The unique role of early spelling in the prediction of later literacy performance. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23(5), 437-444. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1573242
Vargha, A., y Delaney, H. D. (2000). A critique and improvement of the CL common language effect size statistics of McGraw and Wong. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 25, 101–132. https://doi.org/10.2307/1165329
Ziegler, J. C., y Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3
Zugarramurdi, C., Fernández, L., Lallier, M., Valle-Lisboa, J. C., y Carreiras, M. (2022). Mind the orthography: Revisiting the contribution of prereading phonological awareness to reading acquisition. Developmental Psychology, 58(6), 1003-1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001341
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Aula Abierta